United States · 50 states · 2024

Union density and household income, nominal and cost-of-living adjusted.

The cross-state relationship between unionization and median household income is reported two ways. The left chart uses Census ACS 2024 1-year median household income in nominal dollars. The right chart divides that income by the BEA Regional Price Parity (all items, 2024; US = 100), producing a rough cost-of-living-adjusted measure. The slope of the one-variable OLS fit shrinks by about 57% once RPP is applied, but stays positive and statistically significant.

Regression slope · USD per +1 pp union
$1,256 → $537
Shrinks by 57% once RPP-adjusted.
Correlation
0.540 → 0.352
Moderate, then weak-to-moderate after adjustment.
R-squared
0.292 → 0.124
About 29% → 12% of state-level variance explained.
Sample means
9.5% union
Nominal mean income $80,903, adjusted mean $83,068.

Side by side: union rate vs. income, before and after RPP

Both panels share the same y-axis so the compression is visible directly. Bubble size reflects each state's employed wage and salary workforce. The dashed line in each panel is that panel's own OLS fit. Hawaii sits furthest right at 26.5% union; North Carolina anchors the low end at 2.4%. California has the highest RPP at 110.7; Arkansas the lowest at 86.9.

Nominal median household income Census ACS 2024 1-year estimates, unadjusted dollars 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 55k 65k 75k 85k 95k 105k Alabama: 6.6% union, nominal $66,659, RPP-adjusted $75,047, RPP 88.8 Alaska: 17.7% union, nominal $95,665, RPP-adjusted $93,460, RPP 102.4 Arizona: 3.7% union, nominal $81,486, RPP-adjusted $80,938, RPP 100.7 Arkansas: 3.5% union, nominal $62,106, RPP-adjusted $71,438, RPP 86.9 California: 14.5% union, nominal $100,149, RPP-adjusted $90,452, RPP 110.7 Colorado: 7.7% union, nominal $97,113, RPP-adjusted $94,237, RPP 103.1 Connecticut: 16.5% union, nominal $96,049, RPP-adjusted $92,702, RPP 103.6 Delaware: 8.5% union, nominal $87,534, RPP-adjusted $87,702, RPP 99.8 Florida: 5.1% union, nominal $77,735, RPP-adjusted $75,169, RPP 103.4 Georgia: 3.8% union, nominal $79,991, RPP-adjusted $83,070, RPP 96.3 Hawaii: 26.5% union, nominal $100,745, RPP-adjusted $91,627, RPP 110.0 Idaho: 5.0% union, nominal $81,166, RPP-adjusted $84,996, RPP 95.5 Illinois: 13.1% union, nominal $83,211, RPP-adjusted $83,246, RPP 100.0 Indiana: 9.0% union, nominal $71,959, RPP-adjusted $77,103, RPP 93.3 Iowa: 6.4% union, nominal $75,501, RPP-adjusted $86,029, RPP 87.8 Kansas: 6.3% union, nominal $75,514, RPP-adjusted $83,841, RPP 90.1 Kentucky: 8.8% union, nominal $64,526, RPP-adjusted $71,569, RPP 90.2 Louisiana: 3.9% union, nominal $60,986, RPP-adjusted $69,140, RPP 88.2 Maine: 13.1% union, nominal $76,442, RPP-adjusted $78,766, RPP 97.0 Maryland: 11.4% union, nominal $102,905, RPP-adjusted $98,043, RPP 105.0 Massachusetts: 14.6% union, nominal $104,828, RPP-adjusted $99,122, RPP 105.8 Michigan: 13.4% union, nominal $72,389, RPP-adjusted $75,235, RPP 96.2 Minnesota: 14.2% union, nominal $87,117, RPP-adjusted $88,335, RPP 98.6 Mississippi: 5.2% union, nominal $59,127, RPP-adjusted $67,999, RPP 87.0 Missouri: 8.6% union, nominal $71,589, RPP-adjusted $78,828, RPP 90.8 Montana: 11.9% union, nominal $75,340, RPP-adjusted $79,603, RPP 94.6 Nebraska: 6.8% union, nominal $76,376, RPP-adjusted $84,765, RPP 90.1 Nevada: 12.1% union, nominal $81,134, RPP-adjusted $81,151, RPP 100.0 New Hampshire: 9.2% union, nominal $99,782, RPP-adjusted $95,792, RPP 104.2 New Jersey: 16.2% union, nominal $104,294, RPP-adjusted $95,854, RPP 108.8 New Mexico: 7.5% union, nominal $67,816, RPP-adjusted $73,544, RPP 92.2 New York: 20.6% union, nominal $85,820, RPP-adjusted $79,521, RPP 107.9 North Carolina: 2.4% union, nominal $73,958, RPP-adjusted $78,407, RPP 94.3 North Dakota: 5.0% union, nominal $77,871, RPP-adjusted $87,536, RPP 89.0 Ohio: 12.1% union, nominal $72,212, RPP-adjusted $77,836, RPP 92.8 Oklahoma: 5.3% union, nominal $66,148, RPP-adjusted $75,303, RPP 87.8 Oregon: 15.9% union, nominal $85,220, RPP-adjusted $82,449, RPP 103.4 Pennsylvania: 11.7% union, nominal $77,545, RPP-adjusted $79,475, RPP 97.6 Rhode Island: 14.5% union, nominal $83,504, RPP-adjusted $81,643, RPP 102.3 South Carolina: 2.8% union, nominal $72,350, RPP-adjusted $77,174, RPP 93.7 South Dakota: 2.7% union, nominal $76,881, RPP-adjusted $86,787, RPP 88.6 Tennessee: 4.7% union, nominal $71,997, RPP-adjusted $78,368, RPP 91.9 Texas: 4.5% union, nominal $79,721, RPP-adjusted $82,138, RPP 97.1 Utah: 3.7% union, nominal $96,658, RPP-adjusted $97,769, RPP 98.9 Vermont: 14.3% union, nominal $82,730, RPP-adjusted $84,455, RPP 98.0 Virginia: 5.2% union, nominal $92,090, RPP-adjusted $91,084, RPP 101.1 Washington: 16.0% union, nominal $99,389, RPP-adjusted $92,876, RPP 107.0 West Virginia: 8.8% union, nominal $60,798, RPP-adjusted $67,933, RPP 89.5 Wisconsin: 6.4% union, nominal $77,488, RPP-adjusted $82,351, RPP 94.1 Wyoming: 5.6% union, nominal $75,532, RPP-adjusted $81,488, RPP 92.7 AK AR CA CT HI LA MD MA MS NJ NY NC SC SD TX WV Union membership rate Median household income (USD)
RPP-adjusted income (2024) Nominal income divided by BEA Regional Price Parity (US = 100) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 55k 65k 75k 85k 95k 105k Alabama: 6.6% union, nominal $66,659, RPP-adjusted $75,047, RPP 88.8 Alaska: 17.7% union, nominal $95,665, RPP-adjusted $93,460, RPP 102.4 Arizona: 3.7% union, nominal $81,486, RPP-adjusted $80,938, RPP 100.7 Arkansas: 3.5% union, nominal $62,106, RPP-adjusted $71,438, RPP 86.9 California: 14.5% union, nominal $100,149, RPP-adjusted $90,452, RPP 110.7 Colorado: 7.7% union, nominal $97,113, RPP-adjusted $94,237, RPP 103.1 Connecticut: 16.5% union, nominal $96,049, RPP-adjusted $92,702, RPP 103.6 Delaware: 8.5% union, nominal $87,534, RPP-adjusted $87,702, RPP 99.8 Florida: 5.1% union, nominal $77,735, RPP-adjusted $75,169, RPP 103.4 Georgia: 3.8% union, nominal $79,991, RPP-adjusted $83,070, RPP 96.3 Hawaii: 26.5% union, nominal $100,745, RPP-adjusted $91,627, RPP 110.0 Idaho: 5.0% union, nominal $81,166, RPP-adjusted $84,996, RPP 95.5 Illinois: 13.1% union, nominal $83,211, RPP-adjusted $83,246, RPP 100.0 Indiana: 9.0% union, nominal $71,959, RPP-adjusted $77,103, RPP 93.3 Iowa: 6.4% union, nominal $75,501, RPP-adjusted $86,029, RPP 87.8 Kansas: 6.3% union, nominal $75,514, RPP-adjusted $83,841, RPP 90.1 Kentucky: 8.8% union, nominal $64,526, RPP-adjusted $71,569, RPP 90.2 Louisiana: 3.9% union, nominal $60,986, RPP-adjusted $69,140, RPP 88.2 Maine: 13.1% union, nominal $76,442, RPP-adjusted $78,766, RPP 97.0 Maryland: 11.4% union, nominal $102,905, RPP-adjusted $98,043, RPP 105.0 Massachusetts: 14.6% union, nominal $104,828, RPP-adjusted $99,122, RPP 105.8 Michigan: 13.4% union, nominal $72,389, RPP-adjusted $75,235, RPP 96.2 Minnesota: 14.2% union, nominal $87,117, RPP-adjusted $88,335, RPP 98.6 Mississippi: 5.2% union, nominal $59,127, RPP-adjusted $67,999, RPP 87.0 Missouri: 8.6% union, nominal $71,589, RPP-adjusted $78,828, RPP 90.8 Montana: 11.9% union, nominal $75,340, RPP-adjusted $79,603, RPP 94.6 Nebraska: 6.8% union, nominal $76,376, RPP-adjusted $84,765, RPP 90.1 Nevada: 12.1% union, nominal $81,134, RPP-adjusted $81,151, RPP 100.0 New Hampshire: 9.2% union, nominal $99,782, RPP-adjusted $95,792, RPP 104.2 New Jersey: 16.2% union, nominal $104,294, RPP-adjusted $95,854, RPP 108.8 New Mexico: 7.5% union, nominal $67,816, RPP-adjusted $73,544, RPP 92.2 New York: 20.6% union, nominal $85,820, RPP-adjusted $79,521, RPP 107.9 North Carolina: 2.4% union, nominal $73,958, RPP-adjusted $78,407, RPP 94.3 North Dakota: 5.0% union, nominal $77,871, RPP-adjusted $87,536, RPP 89.0 Ohio: 12.1% union, nominal $72,212, RPP-adjusted $77,836, RPP 92.8 Oklahoma: 5.3% union, nominal $66,148, RPP-adjusted $75,303, RPP 87.8 Oregon: 15.9% union, nominal $85,220, RPP-adjusted $82,449, RPP 103.4 Pennsylvania: 11.7% union, nominal $77,545, RPP-adjusted $79,475, RPP 97.6 Rhode Island: 14.5% union, nominal $83,504, RPP-adjusted $81,643, RPP 102.3 South Carolina: 2.8% union, nominal $72,350, RPP-adjusted $77,174, RPP 93.7 South Dakota: 2.7% union, nominal $76,881, RPP-adjusted $86,787, RPP 88.6 Tennessee: 4.7% union, nominal $71,997, RPP-adjusted $78,368, RPP 91.9 Texas: 4.5% union, nominal $79,721, RPP-adjusted $82,138, RPP 97.1 Utah: 3.7% union, nominal $96,658, RPP-adjusted $97,769, RPP 98.9 Vermont: 14.3% union, nominal $82,730, RPP-adjusted $84,455, RPP 98.0 Virginia: 5.2% union, nominal $92,090, RPP-adjusted $91,084, RPP 101.1 Washington: 16.0% union, nominal $99,389, RPP-adjusted $92,876, RPP 107.0 West Virginia: 8.8% union, nominal $60,798, RPP-adjusted $67,933, RPP 89.5 Wisconsin: 6.4% union, nominal $77,488, RPP-adjusted $82,351, RPP 94.1 Wyoming: 5.6% union, nominal $75,532, RPP-adjusted $81,488, RPP 92.7 AK AR CA CT HI LA MD MA MS NJ NY NC SC SD TX UT WV Union membership rate Median household income (USD)

Regression comparison

One-variable OLS across the 50 states. Adjusting the outcome for BEA's Regional Price Parity substantially compresses both the slope and the R-squared, because high-union coastal states also have the highest cost of living.

Nominal incomeRPP-adjusted income
Slope (USD per +1 pp union)
How much median income rises per one-point increase in union density.
$1,256$537
Slope 95% CI
$688 – $1,825$123 – $951
Slope p-value
5.172e-050.01214
Correlation
0.5400.352
R-squared
0.2920.124
Mean income (y)
$80,903$83,068
Residual std. error
$10,530$7,672

Who moves most when we adjust for cost of living?

State rankings by median household income shift once the RPP deflator is applied. States that climb are affordable relative to their nominal income; states that fall have high nominal income largely absorbed by high local prices.

Biggest rank shifts after RPP adjustment Move from nominal-income rank to RPP-adjusted rank (1 = highest income). Climbed the most Fell the most Iowa: 34 → 17 (+17) South Dakota: 29 → 16 (+13) Kansas: 33 → 21 (+12) Nebraska: 31 → 19 (+12) North Dakota: 25 → 15 (+10) Missouri: 42 → 34 (+8) Florida: 26 → 43 (-17) New York: 15 → 32 (-17) Arizona: 20 → 30 (-10) Rhode Island: 17 → 27 (-10) Oregon: 16 → 24 (-8) California: 5 → 12 (-7)

Quadrant view (nominal)

Using the nominal scatter's sample means, states are grouped around the mean union rate and the mean nominal household income. This keeps the quadrant definitions comparable to the earlier version of the report.

High union / high income

15 states
Hawaii26.5% · $100.7kNew York20.6% · $85.8kAlaska17.7% · $95.7kConnecticut16.5% · $96.0kNew Jersey16.2% · $104.3kWashington16.0% · $99.4kOregon15.9% · $85.2kMassachusetts14.6% · $104.8kCalifornia14.5% · $100.1kRhode Island14.5% · $83.5kVermont14.3% · $82.7kMinnesota14.2% · $87.1kIllinois13.1% · $83.2kNevada12.1% · $81.1kMaryland11.4% · $102.9k

High union / lower income

5 states
Michigan13.4% · $72.4kMaine13.1% · $76.4kOhio12.1% · $72.2kMontana11.9% · $75.3kPennsylvania11.7% · $77.5k

Lower union / high income

7 states
New Hampshire9.2% · $99.8kDelaware8.5% · $87.5kColorado7.7% · $97.1kVirginia5.2% · $92.1kIdaho5.0% · $81.2kUtah3.7% · $96.7kArizona3.7% · $81.5k

Lower union / lower income

23 states
Indiana9.0% · $72.0kKentucky8.8% · $64.5kWest Virginia8.8% · $60.8kMissouri8.6% · $71.6kNew Mexico7.5% · $67.8kNebraska6.8% · $76.4kAlabama6.6% · $66.7kWisconsin6.4% · $77.5kIowa6.4% · $75.5kKansas6.3% · $75.5kWyoming5.6% · $75.5kOklahoma5.3% · $66.1kMississippi5.2% · $59.1kFlorida5.1% · $77.7kNorth Dakota5.0% · $77.9kTennessee4.7% · $72.0kTexas4.5% · $79.7kLouisiana3.9% · $61.0kGeorgia3.8% · $80.0kArkansas3.5% · $62.1kSouth Carolina2.8% · $72.3kSouth Dakota2.7% · $76.9kNorth Carolina2.4% · $74.0k

Slope p-values: nominal 5.172e-05, RPP-adjusted 0.01214. Even after adjustment the slope remains positive and distinguishable from zero at conventional levels, though with wider relative uncertainty. This is still descriptive, not causal: the regression compares state-level averages and does not control for industrial mix, education, demographics, or labor-force composition.

Repository audit artifacts: AUDIT.md, SOURCES.md, SHA256SUMS, and audit manifest JSON. Official sources: BLS 2024 state union-membership release, Census ACS 2024 API query, and BEA Regional Price Parities release (SARPP state dump).